This paper analyzes an international capacity building project in city planning in the Gaza Strip coordinating actions in the three main municipalities Gaza, Rafah and Khan Younis (UNDP, 1998), evaluating its results at present. International organizations target municipal coordination to contribute to proper management of micro-regions, through strategic planning and GIS (Geographic information system), as the unit upon which to build the Palestinian state. But the delay in the creation of the state has created new forms of federalism, built on defense ideas rather than a process of integrating regions. Territorial separation in the Gaza Strip and West Bank, and the different micro-regions inside each region, multiply the difficulties for federalism to establish and produce the necessary elements to support the creation of a representative state. Instead of such kind of federalism, technocratic approaches to the problem, encouraged by international capacity building projects, provide very basic planning infrastructure and have been reinterpreted locally as defense strategies, physical, social and cultural, with the emphasis on keeping alive municipal networking in a context of growing socio-territorial segregation. The contribution of the strategic planning approach in building a bottom up authentic sense of Palestinian federalism is extremely relevant and should be taken into account in the design of the future state.

However, because this model of “defensive planning” contributes to difficulties in the negotiation process among the different political factions related to specific territories, it should be urgently reviewed. Moreover, the gap between the concepts and methodologies of the capacity building projects imported from donor countries, even those coming from developing countries, require local reinterpretation, and adaptation to the particular local conditions. This reinterpretation generates extremely valuable synergies, incorporating cultural and political values usually neglected in normal planning schemes. In such a context, strategic planning results in the combination of international planning models, assumed as the standard to achieve, and an underground planning focus on territorial management for defense, contributing to the challenge of paving the road towards a realistic state. But by ignoring negotiation as the cornerstone for planning and adopting technocratic and non-participatory schemes to define urban and regional priorities, it potentially leads to reproduction of conflicts.

The main goal of the paper is to identify what lessons to gain from the painful experience of the Palestinian people, as well as to promote the debate among Arab and international scholars on the viability of the Palestinian State, its federalism scheme and the role of urban and regional planning, the framework of bottom-up or top-down structures. The evolution of the capacity building project in the time provides clues to interpret how its components operate in the complex current scenario.

References

WHI, 1998. Capacity building in urban planning and GIS for the three main municipalities of the Gaza Strip. UNDP. Jerusalem.

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Abu-Zekry, Tarek

Post Globalization and Urban Planning: The Case of Egypt, 1980-2005

This paper is concerned with the problem generated by the differences between planning objectives forced by the "Global Community", (before 9/11) or by the "United States" (after 9/11), and critical urban problems in Egypt during the last 25 years (1980 – 2005). The Global Community imposes not only planning objectives, but also associated approaches, concepts, and techniques. The whole new package of objectives and approaches is considered a prerequisite for any financial or technical assistance, given by rich and developed countries or United Nations' organizations.

The new package, of course, conveys the concern of the donors, i.e. the rich and developed countries. This concern may not fit in the scheme of priorities of "Less Developed Countries" (LDCs). In addition, the associated approaches assume that LDCs have enough trained and skilled planners to carry out these projects, as well as active, rational, and cooperative stakeholders, who are tied together with a democratic culture.

These differences create many problems, especially at the national level. The most important of them are wasting resources, confusing the order of priorities, and adopting ineffective approaches and techniques. This waste leads to more urban crises as it leaves the active and pressing problems without solutions.

The problems became more serious after the 9/11, i.e. in the age of post-globalization, for two main reasons. The first is that there is no room for LDCs to negotiate as happened during globalization era (i.e. before 9/11). The second is that the planning framework has been changed due to increasing profiling processes for the flows of capital, labour, and information. This new framework calls for more involvement of all departments of any state to control various intra or inter flows of capital, labour, and information. Meanwhile, these departments are requested to be committed to all norms of free and democratic society, which means it should leave all entities of the civil society to operate liberally.

The situation after 9/11 needs more understanding for the problems and needs of LDCs. This understanding may enable these countries to deal with their problems effectively as it permits MDCs to enable LDCs in dealing with their pressing problems. For example, the main two problems of Egypt are population distribution and land-use mixed patterns, while the global agenda –which is right- includes environmental issues, women and youth problems, poverty alleviation (sustainable livelihood approaches), etc.

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Afifi, Ahmed Kamal

Yousef, Wael M

Regional Development Strategy for U.A.E.

The world witnesses the great development transformation of the UAE in all life fields, showing that it is overcoming the industrial age and moving towards a new age. The most important factor of this transformation is the rapid development of different urban activities. This may lead in the long run to many urban problems if there is inadequate coordination through a new regional development strategy for the UAE to achieve a more balanced urban development.

This paper develops an approach towards strategic planning within the unique federalism of UAE. Inter-emirate co-ordination needs to be strengthened to cope various challenges of development and to take advantage of the numerous potentials. The objective of sustainable urban growth can be achieved through inter-emirate strategic planning coordination.

There are two hypotheses:

Strategic regional planning, as one of major factors affecting the urban future in the UAE, could be more useful with good coordination.
Inter-emirate planning coordination could be used to ensure intelligent sustainable urban growth in the UAE.

The main objective is to study urban futures in UAE from a sustainable vision, through these secondary objectives:

To analyze factors affecting different regional development aspects of society and urban development in UAE.
To draw conclusions about future regional and urban indicators in sustainable development, and applying it on UAE.

This research relies mainly on inductive methodology, to exploit available theoretical tools to achieve its objectives. It uses secondary comparative analysis methodology, to observe and evaluate different ideas in this field, and draw final conclusions.

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Akbari, Saeed	Beyti, Hamed	Fattahi, Kaveh
Niknam, Ehsan

Pre-disaster Planning in Bam based on Federalism

Iran is a disaster-prone country and is often hit by natural catastrophes. Just within seven seconds, an earthquake measuring 6.5 Mw destroyed the city of Bam completely (December 26, 2003). Besides the official buildings, hospitals and the historical landmark of Arg-e Bam, between 70 and 90 percent of the residential areas were destroyed. The high casualties and enormous damage were such as to shock not only us- Iranians- but the whole world. The disaster of Bam earthquake warned us again. We can only hope that this warning is taken seriously so that we can find ways to avoid a similar disaster which might happen any where.

As planners and concerned authorities, we should take preventative measures to minimize the damage and the number of people suffering. It is required to take quick political and engineering decisions to return the affected areas and structures to a condition where they could be used quickly by beneficiaries to enable their return to normal livelihood.

The paper presents some criteria that should be considered by planners when planning new or existing urban areas to incorporate the immediate and major response required after disasters. We call this “Pre-disaster Design”.

Urban management, incorporating disaster management, should be using the local & regional programming system to make the sustainable development of these areas possible. The sustainable and balanced development in different areas will require the general reconsideration of the programming system of the urban design at the national level and the taking of multilateral decisions with the participation and contribution of the people at the local level.

This paper demonstrates, through a case study of the programming system of Bam, of the need to give attention to ‘pre-disaster design’ to ensure that actual disaster management is effective should it be ever required.

Key words: Bam city, Disaster, Urban management, Regional Programming, Pre-disaster design.

References

Building & Urbanism Ministry,”Architecture & Urbanism Buildings Codes (Developmental Plans)”, published: Country Ministry, Fifth Edition, Tehran, 2002.

City Planning Research Center, ( C. P. R. C. ), A View to the City Planning Samples in Iran, published: City Management, Tehran, 2000.

City Planning Research Center, ( C. P. R. C. ), Methods of Expressing Developmental Plans in Iran, published: Sharmand Architecture Consultant, Volume 1 , 2 , Tehran, 2000.

Habib elahiyan, Jalil, Reviewing on Urbanism in the Past, Present & Future, Second Symposium of Iran Architecture & Urbanism history, First volume, published: Cultural Heritage Organization (C. H.O), Tehran, 2000.

Hashemi, Fazlollah,”The Necessary of Organization National & Regional Planning”, Shahr, published: City Management, no: 17, Tehran, spring 2002.

Hosseyni, behshid,”Disaster management & bam earthquake”, Abadi, published: Country Ministry, no: 5 & 6 , Tehran, Autumn & Winter 2003.

Mehdizadeh, Javad,”To the democratic urbanism”, published: City Management, no: 5, Tehran, 2003.

Mogaddam, Hasan,” Bam Earthquake: Running 2700 years of History Just in 7 Seconds”, Abadi, published: Country Ministry, no: 5 & 6, Tehran, Autumn & Winter 2003.

Mozayyeni, Manochehr,” Analyzing City Management Structures in Iran”, published: Country Ministry, Tehran, 2000.

Saeedniya, Ahmad,”Undeveloped Thinking in Urbanism”, published: University of Tehran, Fine Arts, no: 1, Tehran, spring 1996.

Zista Architecture & Urbanism Consultant, Analyzing Complementary Plans in Iran, published: Budget & Planning Organization, Tehran, 1994.

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Al Ejla, Alia

The Sharjah Geospatial Information Centre

This Presentation will introduce the Sharjah Information Systems Center. (SGC) which was established by HH. The Ruler of Sharjah in August 2004 to take over the responsibility of coordination GIS efforts in the Emirates, and establishing a sophisticate Emirate-Wide GIS Program that caters for the needs and requirements of the Government Departments, the Semi-government departments, the businesses and the public at large. The main topics covered in the presentation include the following:

Introduction to SGC.
Members of the SFC.
SGC Objectives and responsibilities.
SFC General Plan.
Sample SGC Projects.

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Alhasani, Nadia M.

Building on the Edge: Diversity through Self and Other

‘Multiculturalism’ was coined in 1965 by a Canadian Royal Commission. Since its inception, it has sparked discussions concerning tolerance, politics of cultural differences, and the identity of nation-state, the latter bordering on declaring a crisis that has escalated over the past few years.

Right or wrong, Dubai has moved from obscurity to recognition, taking advantage of the global situation. It is promoting the “Global Village” theme with “One World, One Family” as its official slogan. A once a year event, Global Village is attracting some 2-3 million visitors to take advantage of a month long promotion of openness and equal opportunity to be different presented to the world as the shopping festival (in 2005, this event is to extend over three and a half months).

The British are more British in Dubai than in England, the Palestinians more in touch with their identity and the Nationals are cashing on theirs. In order to legitimize these initiatives, the built form has been used as an aggressive and obvious, perhaps even permanent and dominant, tool to reinforce the theme rather than the culture. Unlike more obvious cultural projects (Renzo Piano’s Tjibaou Cultural Centre, Jean Nouvel’s L’Institut du Monde Arabe) intended to “reflect” on the cultural practices of a particular society, expatriates are encouraged to authenticate their architecture through “applied” symbols, “integrated” crafts, and “implied” practices. Unlike Epcot in Florida, these projects are actual habitable edifices scattered within established city blocks (e.g. Pakistani School, Iranian Cultural Club, etc.) or built on virgin land as new destinations (e.g. China Town in International City).

One might pose the questions: Is this multiculturalism or multinationalism? Is this a case of citizens without a state or a state without citizens? A dilemma yet to be confronted.

Key words: Dubai, multiculturalism, architecture, users.

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Al Majed, Sulayman

Enhancing European investments and funding in regional property sector

As the political situation heats up, there is a clear difference of opinion on whether things have become more complicated and worse than during the war on Iraq. Rafik Al-Hariri's martyrdom has ignited the Lebanese and despite Lebanon keeping a distance from the Iraq situation, the connection between Lebanese - Gulf roots and, in particular, the Saudis are becoming stronger and more complex.

Syria and Iran are the other two countries close to the Gulf region. With increasing American pressure on them, people in the region are analyzing America’s strategic moves, especially because the US’s military options are habitually quicker than its diplomatic steps.

However, despite decades of political tensions including the Iraq – Iran war, Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait, the Second Gulf War and other conflicts, the region’s governments have been able to continue the economic growth. It is interesting to note that oil has played an important role in the region’s growth and in causing conflicts within the Arab world. However, political and strategic cooperation between governments is becoming more and more important, as foreign investment is a key driver of the construction boom.

Focusing on property development, the real estate sector saw the announcement, initiation and completion of several major projects in the last year. Though there are doubts on the continuity of the construction boom, the current growth has positively affected the shares within the real-estate sector and the cement and construction industry. This rise is exceptionally visible in the bourses of Saudi Arabia and UAE.

On the other hand, there are four major real estate companies listed in the financial markets within the Kingdom Of Saudi Arabia. which dominates the GCC financial markets with 56% of the total GCC market. The real estate sector in Saudi has definitely grown rapidly with respect to the results of the real-estate companies and the values of their shares.

A company ( the Saudi real-estate ) profit making of 124.1 million Saudi riyals in 2004 while did not reach 60 million before four years shows the growth rate the sector is witnessing, despite this financial growth, the share did not respond directly with these results to retreats from the levels of 296 Riyals in last September to 250 Riyals at the present time . But it undoubtedly realized good gains to the holders of its shares through last year when started in year 2004 at the barrier of 188 Riyals .

Another country with a dynamic real estate sector is Kuwait. The country has the biggest number of general real-estate companies in the region, with as many as 19 companies.

The company will carry out the distribution of grant shares by the ratio of 12 % while raising the company capital by the ratio of 20 % throughout the publication of 36 million shares at a face value of 100 Fils.

Founded in the seventies, the Pearl Properties is currently circulated at 190 fils, while the real-estate net profit touched KD 2.5 million in 2004 compared to 2.98 million KD in 2003.

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Alnakkash, Ghazi Abdul Razzak

Urban Management for Balanced Growth

Urban Management for balanced growth theme is mainly based on multidimensional aspects that include a wide range of practice and experience by different states. It is to be tackled on a case by case approach, and closely related to various federal planning issues i.e. the federal planning system applied by each country like in EU or to be applied by a single country like the UAE with seven different emirates varying in resource availability and geographical sites as well as the urban management programs to be implemented.

Also, we take the strategic planning which is a continuous and systematic process where people reach outcomes and how such outcomes are to be accomplished and success be achieved. There are many models of strategic planning but each one should contain at least six basic elements: objectives, outcome measures, strategic and performance feed foreword, plan to plan and strategic priorities. These are issues to be investigated under the cover of federal planning process as well.

This paper seeks to demonstrate, taking UAE as the example where most of multi-sectoral variables could be taken into account to determine the federal planning approach, that the federal planning system reflects the special characteristics of each country. The variables considered will include urban development programs, capacity building and planning, city development strategies, the regions within the country, participatory process in the national decisions as well as the coordination ad-hoc, also the federal government informal role in planning.

We should realize and pursue the fact that public sector strategic planning measures success in terms of outcomes and focuses on the short and long run. Federal planning takes account of the essential elements of efficiency and effectiveness, and in the context of resource availability.

An important part of federal planning responsibility is that it helps the balanced growth and development in ways that protect the federal government in the region.

The paper will attempt to elaborate and scrutinize all these variables and outcomes to be attained accordingly within the spectrum of the federal planning coverage related to the urban management importance serving the balanced growth as the objective to be achieved with reference to the case of UAE.

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Al Quasimi, Tariq bin Faisal

Role of Government of Sharjah in encouraging SMEs

In recent years, Sharjah has dominated industrial activity within the UAE with over 40% of the total share of the UAE’s industrial sector and high growth rates. The Emirate’s GDP has seen a sharp rise from AED 27.3 billion in 2003 to 31.4 billion in 2004, signifying an increase of 11 %. Continuing the positive economic scenario, the Emirate is expected to see high growth rates in 2005 as well, with the GDP forecasted to touch AED 33.5 billion.

This success has been a result of the rapid growth in different economic sectors, especially the real estate and financial industries. The role of Small and Medium Sized Enterprises has also been significant in fostering growth and development. The Department of Economic Development in Sharjah has dedicated resources to nurture this sector and the fastest growing free zone, Al Hamriya Free Zone in Sharjah is a major centre of SME activity in the UAE. The business centre has attracted a large number of foreign companies, and a number of firms have also set up shop in the Sharjah Airport Free Zone and the Khaled Port Free Zone.

For the reinforcement of growth within the private sector role and to enhance cooperation between different sectors, the Government of Sharjah has founded an investment fund worth AED 50 Million. The investment funding is aimed at small projects that need support and care from the Government for growth and development.

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Alraouf, Ali A.

Back Street Boys: Towards A Place For Children In Today’s Arab City

Most of Arab cities are experiencing both tremendous urbanization processes and challenges. Despite the fact that Arab cities are developing fast, social factors in planning and urban design has been neglected. The concern of the societal needs in urban planning and design is often intended for adults regardless of the growing number and needs of the younger population. Many of the urban problems that Arab cities experience today result from an unbalanced approach to development, where physical development has been given priority compared to spiritual, cultural, and social requirements.

Despite the fact that children constitute the majority of the world’s population, there are limitations to the incorporation of their views and perspectives. The cities of the Arab world are developed, planned and designed for the ‘perfect’ adult. More often, urban streets are laid for cars rather than for people in general and children in particular. This paper focuses on children because their needs are the least considered by planning and design in cities.

Urban authorities, in the Arab world, need to be sensitive to the needs of urban children and they need to find suitable tools and mechanisms to consider children in their strategic and physical planning of their cities. Towns and cities must be made safe and children friendly.

Selecting Cairo, Manama and Dubai as case studies; this paper discusses the various forces that influence Arab children in the wake of industrialization, urbanization, modernization, and globalization. It will specifically focus on diverse social and cultural ills that have emerged among Arab children, which are attributed to living in a stressful physical environment: one that neglects their needs and marginalizes their existence in the fabric of the developing cities.

This paper addresses the following questions: why are cities not planned with the needs of children in mind? What are the characteristics of cities that are positive for children? In addition, it will call for a more holistic approach to planning and rephrasing the role of urban planners and designers in producing spaces and places for Arab children.

Key words: Strategic Planning, Children places, Children Environment, Urban Theories.

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Al Samerai, Ahmed

Economic Analysis of Arab-European relationship

The last year saw most investors doing well within the GCC and this was clearly reflected by the financial markets in the region. In line with the positive mood, the financial markets granted gains to all those listed on the official stock exchanges, and the gains ranged from 145 % in Dubai to 23 % in Muscat.

However, despite the overall success in the region, certain markets look to be more aggressive in building on to the existing advantage, while others worked on reinforcing their positions.

The markets may continue their rapid pace of development in the beginning of 2005, but the year may not see the sharp, sudden changes witnessed in 2004. There is also a small element of fear due to the excessively high values seen in the certain markets currently. However, other markets continue to grow smoothly as the respective economy witnesses a fairly quick growth and development.

When we invest in a market, it is important to not overlook the supporting factors. For example, the capability of Qatar to raise its annual export of gas from 18 million tons to 75 million tons in five years will have a strong impact on the country’s financial market. The investor should look for strategic factors that protect the value of investments from any instant risks that they may be exposed to. Also, I expect that the Qatari economy will realize a growth of around 10 % through year 2006, which will be the highest economic growth rate amongst Arab countries.

The Omani market is also on a good run with the profitability around 10 times as compared to the Saudi market, which is circulated 24 times and the Emirates, 23 times. However, with the release of the fourth quarter financial data, many investors will be looking forward to calmer and cheaper markets.

However, despite the disproportionate growth and the optimism, the Arab World is not yet at par with international business standards, and this is really dependent on the power and influence of organizations in the region. It is noticed that except for a few firms, most Arab companies lack the competitive ability to survive and grow in a free trade environment.

Another disturbing factor is the high population growth in the region. It is seen that even with good economic growth in the three last years, there have been decreasing levels of literacy, health and local product rates. By year 2010, this could be a major problem and except the small, rich countries, the rest of the countries within the region may face economic and social difficulties. This will again result in new problems requiring new solutions. But, I believe that the impacts of such issues will not be restricted to the Arab world alone, and an Arab-European partnership based on creative initiatives for growth will ensure a great future for both sides.

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Al -Zubaidi, Maha S.

Sabie, Khalid K.

Towards Modern & Sustainable Cities in the Gulf Region

Traditional cities in the Arab world, have always been driven by the interaction of multilayered factors. Such cities, in the name on modernity and globalization, have been the product of a redevelopment process through growth from a series of small clusters and houses to become massive urban conurbations. Transportation and water systems have been added as a result of growth.

Major cities in the Gulf region have been experiencing rapid changes and transformations in their social, economic, environmental and physical structures. They have been shaped and reshaped by functionalistic, stylistic and materialistic aspects rather than sustainable developmental variables. Often, international rigid grid systems have been employed emphasizing road networks, land use, zoning and building regulations, and ignoring natural development considerations.

Urban areas in the Gulf region, including UAE, are currently facing growing traffic congestion, road safety issues, and rising air and noise pollution. Clearly many of today's transportation modes do not address sustainable issues; the private car- the first choice to most of the people – is one of the major causes of current high levels of pollution in our cities, besides automobile accidents are the major cause of death in the under 50 age group.

Policy decisions and actions are needed to encourage implementation of sustainable transportation; defined as transportation which aids the mobility needs of society without endangering environment and public health. With about 87% of United Arab Emirates’ population now living in the cities and urban areas, measures need to be taken to reverse the ever-growing motorization congestion, air, noise and soil pollution caused by transport. Consideration must be given to the growing transport energy requirement, the high dependency on oil and transports contribution to the global warming, and the deterioration of public health and the quality of life.

This paper presents a study of the growth of big cities in UAE, particularly Sharjah and Dubai, and the effect of transportation systems on the urban planning developments of these cities. The paper calls for a thorough integration of environmental concerns into transport policy, requiring that the environmental impacts of a transport policy are taken into account alongside economic and social concerns when the policy is designed. The outcome of such change will be a set of guidelines to provide a basis for new planning policies and sustainable urban development for the city in UAE and the Gulf region.

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Amirahmadi, Hooshang

Local-Global Interactions and the Destination of Planning Vocation

The last seven SUPS have focused on a number of major topics, ranging from rapid urban development in the Middle East, to vision planning and globalization, urban growth techniques, innovative urban development, and planning coordination and strategic urban management. Theories informing these and other topics and practices that followed were examined and their relevance for the case of the UAE assessed. Throughout the conferences, the international and local scholars also offered observations on problems of strategic planning coordination in the UAE at a time of rapid urban change. It was often argued that the Emirates needed to refocus attention on the issue of inter-emirate strategic planning coordination so that a more balanced urban development is guaranteed.

My contribution to SUPS 8 will revisit the previous SUPS with a view to the changing debate on urban development planning following the changing state of the world’s political economy and the emerging local-global contradictions. I will put forth the argument that the vocation of planning is increasingly handicapped at local levels by the globalization forces and as such is in transition to an unknown destination. What is certain, however, is that global forces will require increasing need for strategic coordination at the same time that they will force communities to insulate their territories against the unwanted encroachment by the invading global actors. Such local closures will increasingly lead to anti-globalization enclavization and community-focused planning based on the mobilization of hidden community capitals. It is a better conceptualization of these contradictory relations between the local and the global that will set the direction of planning vocation in the coming decade toward a new destination.

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Arar, Mohammad Shihadeh

Urban Planning in Sharjah, the present and the future challenges

The urban development in Sharjah city has been growing rapidly in the last decade. It seems that this growth has been influenced by the mega growth that is taking place in Dubai city. This growth can be classified in three categories: first, an economic investment to establish real estate projects to satisfy the increasing needs for liveable space; second, commercial infrastructure to serve these residential projects; and finally, recreational and educational projects to be part of the whole development.

This paper focuses on recent residential projects and the negative urban impacts experienced due to inadequate preparatory planning survey and the poor choices of urban design solution. These developments have contributed to tremendous pressure in terms of congestion, traffic jams, and chaotic growth. Basic requirements in urban planning and urban design theory appear to have been ignored, such as parking, zoning, traffic circulation, environmental impact analysis, open space, and building codes.

The paper explores these different issues and through case studies of development in Sharjah city will illustrate the negative impacts in the surrounding environment. However there are some positive out come of these developments but the debate in this paper will concentrate on the negative side and the solution to reduce or even eliminate some of these problems.

The outcome of this study will be to establish some guidelines and recommendations as a policy framework to upgrade the existing environment and to apply to any future developments. Sharjah City is still young in age but has tremendous future potential.

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Aref, Hisham M.

An International Comparative Study of Social Housing Sectors: The Netherlands, the United Kingdom, the United States and Egypt

Given the variety of ways to define social housing, agreement on one single clear-cut definition is difficult. However, there is consensus that housing policies should take into account those households that cannot meet their housing needs unaided. Furthermore, social housing provision needs to be guided by certain criteria. Commonly, the housing provision involves many actors: public sector actors like national, provincial and local Governments; as well as private sector actors: developers, landowners, construction companies, building material companies, financial institutions, etc… Housing associations are key actors in fulfilling social housing.

This study aims to defining various schemes of action by housing associations in different countries worldwide. This identification can serve as an important instrument for developing appropriate policies for social housing and can represent as well lessons for policy makers of the future.

This paper discusses the housing associations in four different countries: the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, the United States and Egypt. The Netherlands has been and still is one of the most dynamic and innovative countries in Europe with respect to social housing. In England, the housing association sector has assumed the central role in the delivery of new and restructured social housing over the past decade. As for the United States, it was until quite recently in history that the social housing sector has been considered less than desirable when compared to the Netherlands, UK and